Forty Years Since Black Friday: Looking Back at the Historic Tornado Outbreak and the Barrie F4 From May 31st 1985

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The damaged ‘welcome to Barrie’ sign following the f4 tornado that hit may 31st, 1985, courtesy of the Barrie Banner.

On this day in 1985, Southern Ontario experienced violent thunderstorms which produced an outbreak of 14 tornadoes, part of a larger outbreak of 44 tornadoes that also impacted Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. This stands as the third largest tornado outbreak in Canadian history and one of the tornadoes from that day was the 7th deadliest on record in Canada.

A total of 88 people lost their lives that day; 8 were in Barrie, two were in Grand Valley, two were in Tottenham, and the rest of the fatalities occurred in the US. Hundreds of people were left homeless across Southern Ontario and total damage from the 14 tornadoes is estimated at well over $100 million (in 1985 dollars).

It was all over in six hours and now, May 31st, 1985 is referred to as Black Friday.

The daily weather map from the morning of may 31st, 1985, Courtesy of the National Weather Service.

Meteorological Background

The day began with a low pressure system settled over Northern Minnesota and Wisconsin and an associated cold front stretching over Lake Superior and Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, then southward through Lake Michigan and into the Midwest. This system drew in warm, moist air from the Gulf and cool, dry air from the north. It was being driven by a strong upper-level jet stream so as the cold front rapidly swept eastward through the Gulf air mass, it triggered explosive development of severe thunderstorms.

The satellite loop below shows how the thunderstorms developed through the afternoon and evening across the region as the cold front swept through.

The Visible satellite loop from the afternoon of May 31st, 1985 showing the development of thunderstorms, courtesy of the National Weather Service.

Analysis of the upper air charts shows that winds at the 850mb level were 40 knots (74km/h) and at the 300mb level, they were 100 knots (185 km/h). The winds also changed direction with height which meant the atmosphere had plenty of both vertical speed shear and directional shear, which create rotation in thunderstorms and is a crucial ingredient in the formation of tornadoes.

Environment Canada saw this set up and they proactively issued a Severe Weather Watch at 7am, well ahead of the cold front. The storms started to develop over Lake Huron at 1:40pm and quickly intensified into a line of storms by 2:00pm. At 2:25pm, Environment Canada issued its first Severe Weather Warning of the day, which included the reminder that some severe thunderstorms produce tornadoes.

The line of storms continued to develop over the next couple of hours, travelling eastward at up to 70km/h, and the warnings were subsequently expanded. At 3:45pm, severe thunderstorm warnings extended into Simcoe County and then along the west end of Lake Ontario at 4:53pm as the southern end of the line of storms intensified.

The first tornado warning of the day was issued at 5pm, following confirmation of a touchdown near Shelburne, but it was far too late for the communities that were hit the hardest.

The timing of severe thunderstorm warnings, tornado warnings, and tornado touchdowns from May 31st, 1985, courtesy of Leduc, Jacobson, and Greer.

The tracks of thirteen tornadoes from the May 31st, 1985 outbreak with the Grippen Lake Tornado noticeably missing, courtesy of Leduc, Jacobson, and Greer.

Timeline of Tornado Development

The entire outbreak began in Southern Ontario, with a tornado touching down near Rush Cove in the Bruce Peninsula at approximately 3:00pm. It was rated an F2 and was on the ground for approximately 4km. This tornado is interesting because it was much earlier and well removed from the other tornadoes in this outbreak. The remaining 13 tornadoes can actually be grouped into separate families because there were spawned by the same parent supercells.

As the cold front continued to march eastward through Southern Ontario that afternoon, the thunderstorms and the formation of tornadoes travelled along with it. Following the Rush Cove tornado, there was a lull in tornadic activity until shortly after 4pm. Over the course of the following hour, 7 tornadoes spawned, ranging in intensity from an F1 to two F4 tornadoes.

At 4:10pm, an F2 dropped near Hopeville, northwest of Shelburne and it travelled 17km. Then, at 4:15pm, two separate tornadoes developed: an F3 in Alma, to the northwest Fergus, which was on the ground for 33km, and a devastating F4 which touched down near Arthur. This F4 was on the ground for a staggering 115km, setting the record for the longest tracking tornado ever in Canada, and produced estimated maximum wind gusts in excess of 400km/h. It brought significant damage to both Grand Valley and Tottenham, located 50km to the east. Sadly, two people lost their lives in each of these communities.

Damage in Grand Valley following the F4 tornado, courtesy of the Orangeville Banner.

Two minutes later, an F2 touched down near Corbetton, to the northwest of Melancthon. This tornado came from the same supercell thunderstorm as the Hopeville tornado, which had formed only seven minutes prior. This tornado was on the ground for 35km, more than double that of its predecessor.

A little over half an hour later, at 4:50pm, an F2 hit the community of Lisle, to the west of Base Borden, which was also spawned from the same supercell as the Hopeville tornado. It was on the ground for 18km and then seven minutes later, the same storm dropped another tornado just east, an F1 near Essa, which was on the ground for only half a kilometre. The final tornado that this storm produced was the most deadly and destructive of the day, the Barrie F4, which will be discussed in more detail below.

When the Grand Valley-Tottenham tornado finally lifted after being on the ground for well over an hour, its parent supercell went on to produce two more tornadoes: an F1 that touched down north of Uxbridge at 5:40pm and was on the ground for 5km, and another F1 that hit Reaboro, southeast of Lindsay, at 6:05pm and was on the ground for 8km.

While the two main supercells to the north continued to produce multiple tornadoes between 4:00pm and 6:00pm, the thunderstorm behind the Alma tornado didn’t produce another until two hours later, when an F2 touched down east of Highway 35 at 6:15pm, which later tore through Ida along its 9km track. Five minutes later, this storm produced an F3 that travelled 14km along the north shore of Rice Lake and then 15 minutes after that, a final F1 touched down that was on the ground for only 1km near Minto, to the north of Trenton.

This marks 13 total tornadoes from this outbreak and this is what the tally stood at for many years. It wasn’t until around 2010, two and a half decades later, when scientists at Environment Canada were compiling a tornado database, that a missing report from the defunct Kingston Weather Office was found. It detailed damage caused by an F1 tornado which touched down around 8:10pm near Grippen Lake, to the northeast of Kingston. It remains unclear as to why this report was never submitted, but the inclusion of this tornado brings the final number of tornadoes in Southern Ontario on Black Friday to fourteen.

One of the few photos known to exist of the rain-wrapped Barrie Tornado, taken by Gary Crawford from HIghway 11 beside the Drive-In Theatre in Guthrie (edge of Oro). Donated to Instant Weather by Mr. Crawford.

The Barrie F4 Tornado

The Barrie tornado was the strongest of the 14 that touched down on Black Friday, with winds estimated at over 400km/h, making it the second F4 tornado of the day.

The tornado was rain-wrapped as it touched down just outside of the city in a reforestation area, where it snapped many trees and permanently bent even more. It was initially 600m wide, carving a significant path as it approached the edge of Barrie.

As it moved northeastward into the city, the tornado levelled an entire block of homes in the Crawford Street and Patterson Road area, then hit an industrial area known as Molson Park. From there, the tornado turned to travel eastward and crossed Highway 400, terrifying many commuters as their vehicles were pelted by intense winds and debris.

After crossing the Highway, the tornado narrowed to roughly 300m wide and it began devastating the Allendale neighbourhood in the south end of Barrie, destroying homes and uprooting mature trees. Once it ploughed through this built up area, the tornado once again began travelling northeastward. It lastly hit a marina on Kempenfelt Bay before moving out over the water, where it finally dissipated. Given that the end of the tornado’s path of destruction concluded over water, the exact length of its track can not be concretely known, but it is estimated that it was on the ground for approximately 15km.

It was all over in a matter of minutes, but the tornado left scars that would take years to heal.

The initial Draft of the Official survey of the Barrie F4 tornado done by Scott Somerville at Environment Canada, Courtesy of Michael Newark Tornado Digitized Archive by the Northern Tornadoes Project.

Damage & Aftermath

The destruction brought to Barrie was staggering. In a matter of minutes, 155 people were injured, approximately 800 were left homeless, and damage was initially estimated at over $115 million. Sadly, eight residents lost their lives, including four children.

A total of 605 homes were severely damaged and of those, 265 were deemed uninhabitable. In one case, a townhouse complex just east of Highway 400 had its top storey removed and even sections of the main level. Meanwhile, fifteen industrial buildings west of the highway were completely destroyed and many more sustained significant damage. Vehicles were thrown hundreds of metres and 35 sailboats in Kempenfelt Bay completely disappeared.

Damage in Barrie following the F4 tornado, Courtesy of CTV News.

It took well over a year for the residents of Barrie to rebuild following the F4 tornado and this tornado alone ended up causing $130 million ($334 million in 2025 dollars) in damage. This does not even cover the physical and mental damage experienced by the residents, some of which can never be repaired.

The City of Barrie chose to commemorate this tragic event with two plaques: one for those who lost their lives and one for those who helped the community rebuild.

Damage in Barrie following the F4 tornado, Courtesy of CTV News.

Sources:

Harries, K. (Ed.). (1985). Ontario tornado: May 31, 1985. C.F. Boone.

Leduc, M., Jacobson, O., and Greer, B. (1986). The “Black Friday” tornado outbreak in Ontario: A forecaster’s view of the events of May 31, 1985. Chinook, 8(1), 13-18.

Witten, D. E. (1985). May 31, 1985: A deadly tornado outbreak. Weatherwise 38(4), 193-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/00431672.1985.9933314

https://www.cbc.ca/archives/the-tornadoes-that-tore-a-deadly-path-of-destruction-in-ontario-in-1985-1.5575434

https://www.ctvnews.ca/barrie/article/marking-37-years-since-devastating-ontario-tornadoes/

https://www.ctvnews.ca/barrie/article/may-31-1985-the-day-the-sky-unleashed-fury-on-central-ontario/

https://www.theweathernetwork.com/en/news/weather/severe/may-31-1985-outbreak-how-a-lost-14th-tornado-was-found

https://www.theweathernetwork.com/en/news/weather/severe/this-day-in-weather-history-may-31-1985-the-barrie-grandvalley-tottenham-tornadoes

https://www.uwo.ca/ntp/faqs/what_are_canadas_worst_tornadoes.html

https://www.weather.gov/cle/event_19850531_85outbreak

https://www.weather.gov/ctp/TornadoOutbreak_May311985

Special thanks to Dr. David Sills at the Northern Tornadoes Project for his help in answering some inquiries when writing this article.

On This Day: The Port Huron/Sarnia F4 Tornado of 1953

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The front page of the times herald from Port Huron, Michigan from Saturday, May 23rd, 1953.

Michigan, USA

Monday, May 18th, 1953 – A squall line from the north brought cold, damp weather to Oakland County, MI, for over three days. Three days later, on Thursday, May 21st, 1953, severe thunderstorms developed, pushing cold air eastward across Michigan, while a warm front from the south advanced, delivering humid temperatures to St. Clair County. The protracted battle between cooler temperatures and warm, moist air from the south reached its climax over Smiths Creek, Michigan at 3:30pm.

the location of Smiths Creek, Michigan

By 4:21pm, local radio stations were receiving reports from the Yale area of severe weather conditions, including heavy winds, rain mixed with hail, and darkening skies. As the winds strengthened to 40MPH, a funnel cloud 200 yards wide began to form. At the WTTH Radio Broadcast Centre in Michigan, host Robin Busse issued an urgent warning to residents, notifying them of a tornado touchdown in Smiths Creek, Michigan and advising them to seek shelter immediately in their basements. Before the signal was lost, Robin Busse made a final plea, exclaiming “OH MY… I’VE NEVER SEEN ANYTHING LIKE THIS! PLEASE SEEK SHELTER! HEAD TO YOUR BASEMENTS!” as the wind howled in the background.

The tornado that struck Smiths Creek, Michigan, then entered Port Huron, Michigan, crossing a Lumber Yard on Military Street, and toppling railroad cars along its path before crossing over the St. Clair River. Ralph Polovich, who was a Times Herald Photographer pulled over on Water Street in Port Huron, Michigan to snap a picture of a ‘’White Water Spout’’ as it crossed the river into Sarnia.

Sarnia, Ontario

May 21st, 1953 started off as any other day; a toasty 29 degrees Celsius at 10:24am. By 12:45pm, the temperature rose to 31 degrees Celsius and up to 35 degrees Celsius by 4:25pm. The thunderstorm that led to the tornado dumped golf ball/baseball-sized hail on Sarnia – the hail, which is credited towards saving lives, cleared the streets of motorists and pedestrians as shelter had been found before the tornado struck.

Another radio station (CHOK), located downtown at 148 Front Street North, was broadcasting music and weather updates to the residents of Sarnia. Karl Monk, who served as the stations manager, started his shift at 4pm. ‘’We got some pretty wild weather coming from the West; raining like cats and dogs’’. “Ladies and gentlemen, I just received a note that a tornado has touched down just west of Port Huron. This storm is tracking eastward towards the St. Clair River and has the capabilities to generate a tornado in the Sarnia Lambton Area’’ he announced.

By 5:45pm the tornado hit South of Sarnia Harbor, where it grew in size to 980 yards wide. Moving to the northeast, the tornado hit the downtown area directly, damaging nearly 100 commercial buildings along Front Street and Christina Street.

The Imperial Theatre’s renowned auditorium in Sarnia, suffered a catastrophic collapse. At least 150 homes were damaged, and prior to exiting Sarnia, the tornado veered northeast an began to dissipate as its path narrowed to just 33 yards in width. CHOK maintained continuous coverage throughout the storm, earning recognition for its tireless warnings to Port Huron and Sarnia residents regarding the impending tornado. Much like Robin Busse, Karl Monk was subsequently credited with saving lives through his timely warnings to the public.

the View through the collapsed dome of the Imperial Theatre, Courtesy of the Sarnia Historical Society.

Interesting Facts:

  • Most residents initially believed that an explosion had occurred at the Imperial Oil Refinery in Sarnia. Unbeknownst to them, this was the sound of the actual tornado on the ground.

  • The tornado was believed to have been on the ground for almost 2.5 hours.

  • When the tornado hit, it caused damages exceeding 17 million dollars, left 500 homeless, and made both countries make changes to the way storm warnings were handled.

  • Many survivors reported severe damage to their homes, while houses across the street remained unscathed.

  • The acting Mayor of Sarnia read that the Riot Act would be issued at 11pm that night, which forbade people from going downtown to check out the damage to the area. The area was littered with hazards such as debris, mangled power lines, dead birds and animals, etc. It gave permission for the military to take charge, sending in military personnel from the Ipperwash area, and even calling in the RCMP in to help residents clean up. The National Guard was also called into protect abandoned properties in Port Huron.

  • Just 3 weeks later, on June 8th, an F5 tornado hit Flint, Michigan at about 8:30pm, touching down by a drive-in theatre and killing 116 residents. Coincidentally, on this day, a dinner was being hosted in Michigan honouring Robin Busse from WTTH for his heroic broadcast just 3 weeks earlier.

  • Mail from Flint was found in the debris in Sarnia days after the tornado struck.

damage on Brock Street, Courtesy of the Sarnia Historical Society.

One of our Moderators at Instant Weather, Miranda, lives in Sarnia. Her mom was 5 years old and living in Sarnia when the tornado hit. When Miranda asked her mom to describe what it was like, this is what she said:

“My mother, my sister, and myself lived on the corner of Maxwell and Indian Road, 926 Maxwell to be exact. Our house was a small bungalow, with no basement and no place to seek shelter. My mom was outside on a ladder at the time, tending to the property, when she heard the radio broadcaster telling Sarnia to ‘’Seek shelter immediately’’. She yelled for my sister and I, who were playing outside, to get inside right away.

I recall the sky transforming into a greenish-yellow hue, sirens blaring, and the wind beginning to pick up. The heat that had been intense all day, suddenly was met by a drastic drop in temperature. Hail started to fall, roughly the size of a tennis ball. I never seen the tornado, but I did hear what sounded like a train coming in the distance. The tornado did some damage to surrounding properties nearby, our house was spared thankfully.

Later that evening, my mom, sister and myself walked downtown to Christina Street and Front Street to see the devastation first-hand. I remember dead birds everywhere, along with the old cars flipped upside down on the roadways. We lost a lot of trees in Sarnia on this day. It was incredibly scary; I can remember it like it was yesterday.”

A look at the back of Taylor’s Furniture Store on Christina Street, Courtesy of the Sarnia Historical Society.

Further Reading:

https://sarnianewstoday.ca/sarnia/news/2023/05/19/deadly-storm-sarnia-marks-70th-anniversary

https://skyrisecities.com/news/2016/07/cityscape-how-1950s-tornado-kickstarted-urban-renewal-imperial-city.21782

https://www.flickr.com/photos/sarniahistoricalsociety/albums/72157666099572743/

https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-herald-1953-tornado/63629417/

https://www.thesarniajournal.ca/top-story/from-the-archives-city-hall-operator-called-in-militia-after-downtown-devastated-by-1953-tornado-7973120

Looking Back on Canada's Costliest Winter Disaster: The Ice Storm of January 1998

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A downed hydro pylon in Quebec following the ice storm in January 1998, courtesy of CBC News.

As Canadians rang in the New Year in January 1998, millions were unaware that in only a few days, they’d be caught in the middle of the costliest natural disaster in Canadian history. This is a record that stood for over 18 years, until the Fort McMurray fire of 2016. Nevertheless, it remains the most expensive winter disaster Canada has ever seen.

A 40,000km² area that covered Eastern Ontario and Upstate New York, up the St Lawrence Valley through Montreal, into the Eastern Townships of Quebec and across Maine into New Brunswick was coated in up to 100mm of ice that fell as freezing rain from the 5th until the 10th of January 1998. Light freezing rain was even experienced in Waterloo Region, to the west of Toronto and extended as far east as Western Nova Scotia. It’s important to note that this wasn’t a single storm, but rather a series of three smaller storms that produced freezing rain and ice pellets over an almost week-long period.

The Christmas Break in December 1997 was cold and snowy across much of Southern Ontario and Quebec so it was refreshing when New Year’s Day brought mild temperatures and sunshine to the region. However, a concerning weather pattern was shaping up.

The surface chart from January 7th, 1998 showing the positions of the high and low pressure, areas of precipitations (shaded in darker grey) and the temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit, courtesy of the National Weather Service.

In the coming days, a strong high pressure area settled over Northern Quebec, which forced cold Arctic air southwards, while multiple low pressure systems from the south funnelled warm, moist air northwards. When the two air masses collided, the warm air rose above the cold air and then when the rain fell from the warm air mass, it froze on contact with surfaces at ground-level where the air was much colder.

This is what typically occurs in freezing rain events, but what made this different was the persistent flow of warm, moist air straight from the Gulf of Mexico continuing over several days, turning this into a prolonged event.

Temperature Profiles and the formation of different precipitation types.

The moist Gulf air arrived first, on January 4th, and brought mild temperatures and light rain to most of the impacted region. The next day, the Arctic air moved in and settled below the warmer air mass, bringing surface temperatures back below freezing and resulting in the transition from rain to freezing rain.

The high pressure continued to build over Northern Quebec throughout the following days, which maintained the flow of Arctic air, while the moist Gulf air surged northward in three distinct rounds of precipitation. According to Environment Canada, these three waves were: from 6:00pm on January 5th to 8:00am on January 6th, from 6:00pm on January 7th to 8:00am on January 8th, and from the morning of January 8th until the morning of January 9th.

Overall, an average of 50-70mm of freezing rain fell across the entire region. However, an area later called the “Triangle of Darkness”, between the towns of Saint-Hyacinthe, Granby, and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, was hit the hardest, with more than 100mm of ice accretion.

Total Ice Accretion amounts from the January 1998 Ice Storm, courtesy of the National Weather Service.

Map of the total Ice Accretion from the January 1998 Ice Storm, with a Focus on Eastern Ontario and Southern Quebec, Courtesy of Hydro Quebec.

It didn’t take long for the effects of the ice buildup to be felt. Transportation quickly came to a halt as roads and sidewalks became skating rinks and vehicles were completely encased in ice.

After 10-20mm of freezing rain from the first round of precipitation, tree branches were already bending under the weight of the ice and as more freezing rain fell, the branches broke and entire trees toppled. Residents reported that the continuous sounds of ice-covered trees and branches breaking and falling was akin to gunshots. No definitive number was ever established, but it is estimated that millions of trees fell as a result of this storm.

It was also early on in the event that the strain on the power grid was felt and it only got worse as the freezing rain continued. Transmission lines sagged with the extra weight and short circuits caused by ground wires sagging and touching live wires tripped switches. Fasteners responsible for holding these lines were unable to handle the extra weight from all of the ice and snapped, while entire hydro poles and large towers eventually collapsed.

On top of all of this, transformers were damaged and caught fire, leading to further destruction of the hydro distribution system. Overall, 1,000 hydro pylons crumpled and at least 30,000 hydro poles were destroyed, plunging over 4 million people in Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick into darkness.

A montreal street covered in ice from the January 1998 ice storm, courtesy of Hydro Quebec.

While most people who were impacted by the ice storm were in urban areas, two groups in particular were significantly impacted in rural regions.

The stretch of the country hit by the ice storm was home to roughly 25% of all dairy cows in Canada and farmers encountered considerable challenges with the loss of power. Many cows got sick when it became difficult to feed them, milk them, and keep them warm.

With the lack of power at processing plants, over 10 million litres of milk, worth roughly $5 million, had to be dumped. Hydro Quebec reports that it was able to provide generators to many cattle farmers in the province, but unfortunately an estimated 300,000 farm animals across the entire region died in the cold.

Quebec’s maple syrup industry also took a massive hit with the ice storm. More than 20% of syrup-producing trees were damaged or destroyed as branches fell or large pieces of the trees splintered off, and equipment collapsed under the weight of the ice. Some syrup producers had their entire sugar bushes destroyed and while trees and the industry have mostly recovered, some scars still remain.

A convoy of troops deployed from Petawawa en Route to aid victims of the ice storm, taken January 9th, 1998, Courtesy of Veterans Affairs Canada.

On January 7th, at the peak of the ice storm, the Provincial Governments of Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick appealed to the Federal Government for assistance. The next day, 15,000 members of the Canadian Armed Forces were deployed from 200 different units from across the country as part of Operation Recuperation, making this this largest peacetime deployment of troops in Canadian history.

Troops worked with hydro companies to help restore power, cleared tree limbs and other debris, evacuated residents, and provided shelter, food and medical care to victims. The Operation eventually concluded on February 28th, 1998.

Due to the sheer level of damage across such a large area, the cleanup of debris and restoration of power was not something that was going to occur overnight. Temperatures plummeted following the ice storm to -20°C, so staying warm was the number one concern in the aftermath.

Many people were able to stay with family and friends who still had power, but emergency shelters were set up and available for those with nowhere else to go. Approximately 600,000 people were temporarily displaced from their homes while crews worked to restore power.

Thankfully, hydro crews from across the country and the United States came to the aid of those in the disaster area. The power was restored to many people in urban areas after a few days, but efforts took longer in rural communities, with roughly 700,000 people still without power three weeks after the storm.

The ice storm was a real testament to the sense of community as well as the welcoming and giving nature of Canadians. Many people came together to help clean up and provide food and shelter to those in need. Despite all this, the storm resulted in 945 injuries and 35 people sadly lost their lives.

On top of the human cost, the storm had a very large financial cost. The incredible amount of damage caused by this storm was estimated to have cost insurers $1.38 billion. Furthermore, entire cities were shut down and 2.6 million people in Ontario and Quebec, consisting of close to a fifth of the Canadian workforce, unable to get to work. The loss of productivity was over $1 billion and when added to insured damages and the over $2 billion it cost to repair utilities, the overall financial cost of the storm is estimated at $5.4 billion.

Further Reading:

https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/lessons-learned-from-the-ice-storm-of-1998/

https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/ice-storm-1998-1.4469977

https://www.hydroquebec.com/ice-storm-1998/

https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ice-storm-1998

https://www.veterans.gc.ca/en/remembrance/wars-and-conflicts/caf-operations/service-in-canada/ice-storm

https://www.weather.gov/btv/25th-Anniversary-of-the-Devastating-1998-Ice-Storm-in-the-Northeast

"The Legend Lives On" With the 49th Anniversary of the Sinking of the Edmund Fitzgerald

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Photo of the Edmund Fitzgerald taken in 1975, courtesy of the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum.

Today we remember the sinking of the Edmund Fitzgerald and the loss of her 29 crew members in 1975. Many Canadians and Americans are familiar with this now infamous event thanks to a very popular song by Gordon Lightfoot from 1976, The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald. The ship sank 17 miles north-northwest of Whitefish Point, just outside of Whitefish Bay, an area that is sadly full of shipwrecks. To this day, there has been no official cause behind the wreck, but the weather was very likely a factor.

The tracks of the Edmund Fitzgerald and the nearby Arthur M. Anderson, Courtesy of the National Weather Service.

Lake Superior is known for its intense November storms, known as gales or witches, and one such storm moved through the region on November 9th and 10th of 1975, when the Edmund Fitzgerald sank.

The Edmund Fitzgerald departed from Superior, Wisconsin at about 2:30pm on November 9th and was quickly joined by the Arthur M. Anderson, which had departed out of Two Harbors, Minnesota. The Captains of the two ships were aware of an incoming storm and opted to take the safer northern route across Lake Superior to their destinations. The Edmund Fitzgerald took the lead and the Arthur M. Anderson followed at a distance of 10 to 15 miles.

The National Weather Service issued a gale warning at 7pm on November 9th, which was then upgraded to a storm warning in the early morning hours of November 10th. By the early afternoon, winds were gusting at 50 knots (93 km/h) and waves were 3.5 to 5 metres (12 to 16 feet) tall, but these were conditions that the Captains could handle.

The conditions continued to deteriorate throughout the afternoon and at 3:30pm, Captain McSorley of the Edmund Fitzgerald radioed the Arthur M. Anderson to report minor damage to the ship along with a list (a tilt). He asked the other ship to stay close until they got to Whitefish Bay, at the eastern end of Lake Superior, and he would slow down so they could follow closer. Captain Cooper of the Arthur M. Anderson agreed and the two ships continued on their journey.

Reports from the Arthur M. Anderson give us the best insight to the conditions the two ships faced heading into the evening. At approximately 5:20pm, Captain Cooper reported sustained winds of 58 knots (107 km/h) and gusts of 70 knots (130 km/h) along with waves of 5.5 to 7.5 metres (18 to 25 feet). Then, at about 6:55pm, the crew felt a “bump” and the ship lurched due to a gigantic wave crashing into the ship from behind, forcing the bow under water. Just as the ship recovered, a second wave hit. Captain Cooper later said that he watched those two waves head towards the Edmund Fitzgerald ahead of them and he believed that those two waves sank her.

The Arthur M. Anderson made its final contact with the Edmund Fitzgerald at 7:10pm to confirm their position. They were having trouble tracking the lead ship because the waves were so high that they were interfering with radar. The ship kept disappearing and reappearing on radar, but at 7:15pm, it disappeared for the last time. The Arthur M. Anderson tried to contact the Edmund Fitzgerald once again at 7:22pm, but there was no answer. The Edmund Fitzgerald was not seen again until May 20th, 1976, 163 metres (535 feet) below the surface of the lake.

Modelled wave heights and directions on lake superior at 7pm, November 10th, 1975. The location of the Edmund Fitzgerald wreck is marked by the red plus, Courtesy of the National Weather Service.

In 2006, a study re-examined the November 1975 storm using modern computer modelling in order to determine wind strength and wave heights at the time of the sinking. According to these models, it’s likely that the waves were at least 7.5 metres (25 feet) tall driven by sustained winds over 45 knots (83 km/h). Unfortunately, the worst conditions from this storm occurred exactly when and where the Edmund Fitzgerald sank.

Three months after the discovery of the doomed ship, Gordon Lightfoot released his hit song, The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald, which has forever memorialized the ship into the hearts and minds of Canadians and Americans alike. The anniversary of the sinking is still honoured every year at the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum at Whitefish Point. In the ceremony, the recovered bell of the Edmund Fitzgerald is rung 29 times, for each crew member lost, and a 30th time for all others who have been lost to the Great Lakes.

Further Reading:

Hultquist, T.R., Dutter, M.R. and Schwab, D.J. (2006). Reexamination of the 9–10 November 1975 “Edmund Fitzgerald” Storm Using Today's Technology. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 87(5), 607-622. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-87-5-607

https://www.shipwreckmuseum.com/edmund-fitzgerald/

https://www.shipwreckmuseum.com/the-fateful-journey/

https://www.ssedmundfitzgerald.org/storm-and-voyage

https://www.weather.gov/mqt/fitz_fitz

Toronto’s Storm of the Century: Remembering Hurricane Hazel 70 Years Later

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Overhead view of Raymore drive in Toronto following hurricane hazel, courtesy of Toronto and Region Conservation Authority.

It was on this day 70 years ago, in 1954, that the now infamous Hurricane Hazel hit Southern Ontario and caused catastrophic damage to Toronto. It is considered the area’s worst natural disaster and has shaped development for years to come. The storm produced winds up to 124km/h and dumped over 200mm of rain in just 24 hours; left 81 people dead and over 4000 families homeless, 1868 of those families in Toronto; and caused over $135 million in damages in Ontario ($1.5 billion by today’s standards). Hazel changed the way conservation authorities operate across Ontario and those impacts are still felt to this day.

Hurricane Hazel's Path, October 14-15, 1954, Courtesy of the National Weather Service.

Hurricane Hazel was first identified on October 5, 1954 by a Hurricane Hunters aircraft from Puerto Rico which located it just east of the island nation of Grenada in the West Indies. The plane estimated that the storm was already a Category 2 hurricane with winds estimated at 160km/h, but this value was more recently revised to 105km/h, making Hazel a Tropical Storm at the time, during reanalysis of former hurricane seasons by NOAA. Hazel intensified following the Hurricane Hunters mission and it made its first landfall over Grenada on the evening of the 5th as a Category 1 hurricane with winds estimated at 120km/h.

From there, Hazel tracked west-northwestward off the northern coast of Venezuela for the next few days, gaining strength along the way. Late on October 9th, Hazel gained Major Hurricane status with winds estimated at 195km/h. The next day, the storm made a sharp turn and started churning northeastward, where it eventually made two separate landfalls on Haiti’s west coast, initially over the Tiberon Peninsula as a Category 3 with winds estimated at 195km/h in the pre-dawn hours on the 12th and then as a Category 2 with estimated winds of 160km/h later that same evening over the northern peninsula. Hurricane Hazel killed up to 1000 people in Haiti and devastated the economy, destroying 40% of the nation’s coffee trees and 50% of the cacao crop.

Following its second landfall in Haiti, Hurricane Hazel curled northwestward and made its fourth total landfall in Inagua, an island in the Bahamas, less than 18 hours later on the morning of the 13th. The storm maintained its Category 2 strength between the two landfall occurrences, hitting the Bahamas with winds estimated at 160km/h.

Beyond the Bahamas, Hazel gained speed and reintensified, becoming a Category 4 hurricane on the evening of October 14th. Just before noon on October 15th, Hazel made its fifth and final landfall near the border of North Carolina and South Carolina as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 215km/h and gusts up to 240km/h. Hazel quickly transitioned to a post-tropical cyclone, but it maintained hurricane-force winds as it quickly pushed through D.C., Pennsylvania, New York, and towards the Canadian border. The storm killed 95 Americans and caused over $1.5 billion of damage by today’s standards.

Surface Chart from 8:3pm ET showing the location of Hazel over Southern Ontario, Courtesy of the National Weather Service.

As Hazel made its way northward through the States, Canadian authorities began issuing warnings to the general public, but most people didn’t know how to prepare for a hurricane. The storm began to weaken over the Allegheny Mountains in West Virginia and meteorologists expected it to dissipate, however the opposite happened. Instead, Hazel encountered a low-pressure system over western New York and intensified just before it crossed into the Niagara Peninsula.

Hurricane Hazel was a post-tropical Category 1 storm that brought severe wind gusts of up to 124km/h to a large portion of Southern Ontario on October 15th, but the winds were not the main concern from the storm. By the evening rush hour, the winds began to die down, but according to Chief Meteorologist Brian Turnbull, the worst of the storm was yet to come. The days leading up to Hazel’s arrival were quite wet so when the heavy rainfall began in the late afternoon, it didn’t take long for flooding to begin. Significant deforestation and development on the saturated flood plains across Toronto could not contain the over 200mm of rain that fell in 24 hours which resulted in many rivers overtopping their banks, with water levels rising by up to 8 metres. The Humber River, in particular, became a deadly torrent through the city, washing away roads, bridges, and entire homes. Overall, the storm dumped 181.6 billion litres of rain on the City of Toronto.

In total, 81 people lost their lives from Hurricane Hazel, mostly in the west end of Toronto. Across Southern Ontario, approximately 4000 families lost their homes, 1868 of which were in Toronto. Raymore Drive was hit particularly hard with 14 homes being washed away, killing 35 people. Fortunately, the death toll could have been much worse if not for the heroics displayed by many police officers, firefighters, and ordinary citizens who worked tirelessly trying to save those who became stranded. Sadly, five firefighters lost their lives when trying to rescue trapped motorists.

The effects of Hurricane Hazel were felt beyond Toronto. Significant flooding was experienced in communities as far west as London and north to Georgian Bay as the storm progressed northwards to James Bay, where it eventually dissipated.

Members of the Harbour Patrol Rescue a man from the Don River, courtesy of the Canadian Encyclopedia.

In the aftermath of Hurricane Hazel, many changes were made to conservation authorities across Ontario, especially in the Greater Toronto Area.

An intensive plan was put in place by conservation authorities, along with both the municipal and provincial governments, for flood control and water conservation in order to limit loss of life and property from future extreme weather events. As part of this plan, flood control facilities were inspected, upgraded, or built alongside additional dams and reservoirs to control and monitor water levels. A flood forecasting and warning system was also a large component to the plan.

An amendment was made to the Conservation Authorities Act that allowed individual conservation authorities to obtain and control vulnerable areas to be used for conservation and recreation. As a result, many homes were cleared from low-lying areas and greenbelts were created within watersheds. This included the expropriation of most remaining properties on Raymore Drive by the Metro Toronto and Region Conservation Authority which was turned into parkland, now called Raymore Park.

As we look back on the anniversary of this tragic event, we want to remember those that were lost and all of the efforts that have been put in place since to prepare for future extreme weather events. The City of Toronto has seen many flooding events since Hurricane Hazel, and it will continue to do so for many year. However, major floods in 2013 and more recently in 2024 show that more work still needs to be done.

The G. Ross Lord Dam, One of the Many Flood Control Measures in Place Across Toronto, Courtesy of the Toronto and Region Conservation Authority.

Sources:

https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/hurdat2.html

https://www.heritage-matters.ca/articles/hurricane-hazel-50-years-later

https://www.heritagetrust.on.ca/pages/programs/provincial-plaque-program/provincial-plaque-background-papers/hurricane-hazel

https://www.hurricanehazel.ca/ssi/evolution_flood_control.shtml

https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/toronto-feature-hurricane-hazel

https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/hurricane-hazel

https://www.trca.ca/news/hurricane-hazel-70-years/

https://www.weather.gov/mhx/Oct151954EventReview